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Access status: Open Access ,
Assessment of factors that contribute to non-compliance during SANAS audits in the Midlands business unit from 2020 to 2023
(Central University of technology, 2026) Zondi, S’nenhlanhla Nonjabulo
Accreditation of medical laboratories is a critical requirement for ensuring quality, reliability, and compliance with international standards such as ISO 15189. In South Africa, the South African National Accreditation System (SANAS) evaluates laboratories to maintain standards of competence, accuracy, and patient safety. Despite accreditation, non-conformances (NCs) remain a recurring challenge during audits. This study assessed the factors contributing to non-compliance during SANAS audits in the National Health Laboratory Service (NHLS) Midlands Business Unit from 2020 to 2023. A descriptive, retrospective, non-experimental quantitative research design was employed. The study population included all SANAS-accredited laboratories in the Midlands BU (N=7). Data were extracted from SANAS audit records, with a focus on NCs raised during the 2020–2023 period, and triangulated with perceptions from purposively selected internal auditors through an online survey. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse trends, and thematic grouping identified recurring NC categories. Results showed that NCs fluctuated across the period, but persisted in core areas, including documentation and SOP management, training and competency assessment, corrective and preventive action (CAPA) monitoring, and weaknesses in management review meetings. Analytical and post-analytical deficiencies, such as equipment maintenance lapses, QC miscalculations, and inconsistent communication of critical results, were also noted. Survey findings reinforced these themes, with auditors reporting incomplete training records, delayed CAPA implementation, and systemic weaknesses in document control and accountability structures. The study concludes that non-conformances during SANAS audits in the Midlands BU are driven by systemic quality management challenges compounded by human factors such as SOP non adherence. Strengthening CAPA processes, enhancing training and competency frameworks, embedding SOP discipline, and reinforcing management accountability are recommended to sustain ISO 15189 compliance.
Access status: Open Access ,
A quantitative and qualitative assessment of terpenes in the manufacturing of Cannabis-infused and highly hopped SA craft beers
(Central University of technology, 2025) Zacharia, Puleng Rose
The increasing global interest in functional beverages has extended to beer, where bioactive plant compounds are being harnessed to provide perceived health benefits alongside sensory appeal. Within this context, hops (Humulus lupulus) and Cannabis sativa, two members of the Cannabaceae family, share significant chemical and aromatic similarities through their terpene content. This study explored the quantitative and qualitative assessment of terpenes in the manufacture of Cannabis-infused and highly hopped South African craft beers. The work was motivated by the absence of verified data on the survival, retention, and potential bioactive contribution of terpenes in the final product, despite widespread claims of their presence in such beers. The study aimed to determine whether terpenes originating from hops and Cannabis are retained after brewing, at concentrations that may contribute to health or sensory benefits. The specific objectives were to: (1) analyse and compare terpenes between raw materials and finished commercial beers; (2) assess the chemical composition of these beers using validated chromatographic methods; (3) brew experimental beers incorporating hop and Cannabis extracts to enhance terpene retention; and (4) evaluate the sensory acceptability of the resulting beers. Commercial samples of highly hopped and cannabis-infused beers, as well as their corresponding raw materials (hops, hop oils, Cannabis terpene concentrate, and CBD oil), were characterised using Gas Chromatography coupled with Flame Ionisation Detection (GC-FID), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). These methods enabled the detection, separation, and quantification of volatile terpenes and cannabinoids across different matrices. The compounds detected in the raw materials were not retained in the finished beers. Lager 1 in which shelled hemp seeds were used, only terpinolene was detected in the final beer. Lager 2 in which an CBD oil with content CBN, Delta-9-THC, THC-V and total potential THC at levels 0.004, 0.005, 0.001 and 0.005% respectively, was used contained none of the compounds in the finished beer. Pale ale 1 in which commercial Cannabis terpene extract was used that contained 9 terpenes namely α -Humulene (157.622 mg/g), α -Pinene (64.453 mg/g), β -Caryophyllene (202.573 mg/g), β -Myrcene (151.144 mg/g), β -Pinene (36.156 mg/g), limonene (54.502 mg/g), linalool (19.981 mg/g), ocimene (37.426 mg/g), and terpinolene (58.745 mg/g). The finished beer contained only terpinolene (0.249 mg/g). Analysis of highly hopped beers from the same breweries also yielded similar results. Raw materials (hops) contained high levels of terpenes, but only terpinolene was detected in 2 of the 3 finished beers. Experimental brewing trials were then conducted using hop oils distilled from up-cycled South African hop waste and Cannabis terpene extract. Controlled fermentation and late-stage hop oil additions (0.03 g/7 L) were applied to minimise terpene volatilisation losses. Three pilot brews (PZB-01, PZB-02, PZB-03) were produced, representing hop-oil and cannabis extract treatments, and were evaluated through sensory sessions with trained beer judges/tasters (n = 22) as well as analysed using GC-FID. Sensory analysis of experimental beers attributed medium low aroma and flavour to fruity, hoppy apple, pear, orange, lemon and earthy when the median of test results was considered, with little differences among the 3 beers. Overall acceptability of PZB-02 (Cannabis terpene concentrate and PZB-03 (African Queen hop oil) was high (score of 8 on hedonic scale). These results indicated that the concentration of oils used required optimization and could be increased. Interestingly, the GC-FID analysis of the experimental beers again only detected the presences of terpinolene in PZB-01 (0.301±0.022 mg/g), PZB-02 (0.355±0.006 mg/g) and PZB-03 (0.362±0.026 mg/g) in the finished beers. Terpinolene is a structural isomer of limonene and presents as fresh, pine, herbal, woody and resinous. Its aroma profile may explain the comparable sensory results while no other terpenes were detected in the finished beer. Terpene retention primarily influences sensory quality rather than bioactivity of beer. The results provide a scientific basis for future formulation of functional or sensory-enhanced beers and support the potential of up-cycled South African hop extracts as sustainable flavouring agents in the craft brewing sector.
Access status: Open Access ,
Food safety culture: A mixed method exploration of a prominent wet condiment manufacturer in the Western Cape
(Central University of technology, 2025) Visser, Monique
Food safety continues to represent a significant global public health challenge, with the World Health Organization estimating that approximately 600 million people fall ill and 420 000 die each year from foodborne diseases. Regulation and scholarship have traditionally focused on high-risk commodities such as meat, poultry, seafood, and ready-to-eat foods. Condiments, however, despite their global consumption and potential to harbour microbial, chemical, and allergenic hazards, have received far less attention. In South Africa, condiment manufacturing constitutes both an important domestic industry and a growing export contributor, yet it is characterised by seasonal operations, limited resources, high staff turnover, and the pressure to align with international certification schemes such as FSSC 22000 and BRCGS. These challenges underscore the importance of cultivating a food safety culture (FSC) that extends beyond compliance to integrate safe practices within everyday behaviour. The overall aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate the structural barriers constraining FSC maturity within a wet condiment manufacturer in the Western Cape, South Africa, and to propose context-specific strategies to enhance resilience through leadership, communication, inclusivity, and innovation. The objectives of the research study were to assess FSC maturity through a case study approach; conduct a narrative review on food safety assurance in the condiment sector and the role of organisational culture; perform a sequential explanatory mixed methods secondary data analysis of a survey questionnaire, interviews, focus groups, and an observational assessment; and apply design thinking to develop practical prototypes for strengthening FSC. Guided by research questions exploring structural barriers, leadership influence, and the value of design thinking, the research adopted a multi-paradigm framework integrating pragmatism, interpretivism, and critical theory. Pragmatism offered methodological flexibility, interpretivism enabled exploration of employees’ lived experiences, and critical theory supported interrogation of systemic barriers shaping cultural practices. A secondary data analysis design drew on a 2021 consultative project conducted within the selected organisation. Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of the Free State (UFS-HSD2024/1169), with permissions from both the consulting organisation and the manufacturer. The primary dataset included a survey questionnaire distributed to all employees (n = 190; 83% response rate), interviews with thirteen (n = 13) senior employees, twelve focus groups (n = 12) with 120 employees, and a structured observational assessment capturing 48 occurrences. Quantitative data were analysed through descriptive and comparative statistics, while qualitative data underwent thematic coding. Triangulation across datasets ensured integration of measurable indicators and lived experiences. The narrative review outlined the evolution of FSC as a concept complementing food safety management systems (FSMS). Although standards such as Codex, HACCP, ISO 22000, and FSSC 22000 have advanced harmonisation, recurring outbreaks reveal the limits of technical compliance. Researchers including Griffith, Jespersen, Zanin, and Yiannas highlight that FSC is shaped by leadership, communication, transparency, and employee engagement. The review found minimal research on condiments, despite unique microbial, chemical, and allergenic risks, compounded in South Africa by infrastructural and regulatory constraints. Quantitative findings indicated strong employee commitment to food safety but inconsistent structural reinforcement. Vision scored highest (81%), while inspiration, empowerment, performance, and change appetite scored below maturity thresholds. Qualitative insights revealed limited leadership visibility, inconsistent recognition, poor communication, and symbolic rather than functional cultural artefacts. Observational findings supported variations between documented procedures and practice. Together, the findings highlighted committed employees constrained by systemic weaknesses. Building on these insights, an adapted Stanford Design Thinking model translated findings into practical interventions. Through the Empathise, Define, Ideate, and Prototype stages, three prototypes emerged: Translated for Food Safety, promoting bilingual, visually accessible training; Cultural Artefacts of Food Safety, integrating visual cues into daily routines; and Integrated Internal Audit: FSC Assessment and Sentiment Analysis, incorporating behavioural and emotional dimensions into compliance frameworks. The research study concludes that FSC in condiment manufacturing depends less on technical systems than on reinforcing values and behaviours through leadership, communication, recognition, and inclusivity. Thus, it contributes theoretically by extending FSC research to an under-studied sector; methodologically by combining secondary mixed methods analysis with design thinking; and practically by offering adaptable prototypes to strengthen resilience. Limitations include the focus on a single manufacturer and reliance on secondary data, yet these open opportunities for comparative, longitudinal, and AI-enabled research. Ultimately, the dissertation supports that strengthening FSC requires a shift beyond compliance toward cultural transformation rooted in employees’ lived experiences, offering pathways to build resilient food safety cultures and protect consumer health. Therefore, the research study advances the existing understanding in academic contexts and proposes considerations essential to the protection of consumer health.
Access status: Open Access ,
Using silicon-based liquid fertiliser to improve growth, yield and quality of beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) grown under combined phosphorus and water stress in Mpumalanga
(Central University of technology, 2025) Sadiki, Lethabo Cyril
Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a vital vegetable crop with significant health benefits due to its rich nutritional profile and bioactive compounds. However, its production, like any other crop, is threatened by the abiotic multi-stress conditions involving soil nutrient deficiencies, water deficit and acidity. In recent years, the silicon-based liquid fertilizer (SB) has emerged as a promising tool to enhance crop resilience to single abiotic stress; however, there is a dearth of information on the effects of SB application on crop performance under combined abiotic stresses. Hence, this study aimed to assess the (i) beetroot growth, yield and quality, and (ii) soil quality parameters in response to SB application and combined phosphorus (P) and water (W) deficit levels at crop harvest. To achieve the above-mentioned objectives, a 90-day experiment was conducted in the net house at the Nooitgedacht Research Station in Mpumalanga, South Africa, during the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 cropping seasons. The 4 × 6 factorial design experiment was arranged in a completely randomised block design with three replications. The treatments consisted of four SBs with different concentrations [0 - distilled water as a control (SB0), 0.2 (SB0.2), 0.4 (SB0.4), and 0.6 (SB0.6) L/ha], a factorial combination of two P deficit levels [20 kg/ha (P20) and 40 kg/ha (P40)]), and three W deficit levels [25% (W25), 50% (W50), and 100% (W100) of evapotranspiration]: P20W25, P40W25, P20W50, P40W50, P20W100, and P40W100. The (W) stress and foliar SB application began at 14 and 28 days after transplanting (DAT), respectively. Plant height, number of leaves per plant, the leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll content were determined at 63 DAT, while stomatal conductance was measured at 70 DAT. The beetroot was harvested at 90 DAT to determine fresh leaf mass, dry leaf mass, fresh root mass, dry root mass, total fresh biomass, total dry biomass, root diameter, and beetroot quality parameters. The Shapiro-Wilks test and homogeneity of variance were performed on standardised residuals to test for any deviations from normality and homoscedasticity, respectively, to measure the equality of variances between seasons. Heteroscedasticity between the two growing periods was indicated by the results, which showed a lack of variance homogeneity (P<0.05). The P20W25 significantly decreased the chlorophyll content by up to 38%, compared to P40W100. The SB0.2 application significantly increased the stomatal conductance by 21%, 30%, and 26% compared to SB0, SB0.4, and SB0.6, respectively, at 70 DAT. Compared to SB0×P20W25, SB0.2×P40W100 increased stomatal conductance by 153% in season 1 and 60% in season 2. Plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf area, and root quality parameters were not affected by the SB application and SB×PW. Leaf P content was significantly reduced by 120% for the P20W25 compared to P20W100. The application of SB0.2, SB0.4 and SB0.6 significantly reduced leaf Cu content by 32%, 39%, and 78%, respectively, relative to SB0. Fresh root mass, dry root mass, total fresh biomass, and total dry biomass varied significantly with combined P and W deficit levels, season and the interaction of SB, combined P and W deficit levels and season. The SB0.4×P20W100 led to a substantial increase in fresh root mass (97%) and dry root mass (86%) compared to SB0×P20W25 in season 2. Fresh root mass, total fresh biomass, and total dry biomass recorded from P20W25 were significantly reduced by 46%, 28%, and 26%, respectively, compared to P40W100 in season 2. All yield parameters in season 2 were quantitatively higher than in season 1, with SB0.4×P20W100 recording the highest values across all yield parameters. Compared to P20W100, P20W25 significantly reduced root P content by 50%, indicating that the extreme stress limits P uptake. The application of SB0.2, SB0.4, and SB0.6 significantly reduced root Ca content relative to the control. The SB0.4×P20W25 significantly reduced the root Na content compared to SB0×P40W25. This may be associated with osmotic adjustment and ionic balance regulation. Compared to control, SB0.4 and SB0.6 reduced Co content by up to 41% in season 1. The P40W100 treatment significantly reduced B content by 82% compared to the P40W25 treatment in season 1, while no significant effect was observed in season 2. The principal component analysis results showed that, in conclusion, the beetroot Ca, Mg, K, Na, P, Fe, Zn, and Mn content were strongly and positively associated with SB0.4×P20W50 in season 1. Season 2 produced higher crop yield, whereas season 1 exhibited higher root P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, B, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn content, suggesting a biomass dilution effect, in which increased yield in season 2 led to lower nutrient content due to the distribution of nutrients across greater biomass. The effect of the SB on soil Ca, Na, K, Mg, and pH (KCl) was not significant.
Access status: Open Access ,
In vitro anti-cancer activity of isolated compound from Asparagus laricinus burch. leaves on breast cancer cell lines (mcf-7)
(Central University of technology, 2025) Rangwaga, Mmannini Francina
Breast cancer is a global health issue and the second leading cause of death in women. Global Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence 2020 reported 186 598 breast cancer cases, with 85 878 related deaths in Africa. While the morbidity rates appeared low, the mortality rates were relatively high in sub-Saharan Africa. Current breast cancer therapies are known to cause severe long-term adverse effects in patients. An alternative approach to combat this issue is to conduct research aimed at discovering treatments using traditional medicinal plants (TMPs) that have reduced severe adverse effects. TMPs contain secondary metabolites known to possess anti-cancer potential, as reported in previous studies. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-cancer activity of compound N-A, isolated from the Asparagus laricinus Burch. plant, against breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7) in vitro. Various chromatographic techniques, such as vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC), column chromatography, high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), and preparative thin-layer chromatography (PTLC), were employed to fractionate, isolate, and purify the compound. The chemical composition of the plant extract was identified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). A total of 18 fractions were collected by VLC and further combined based on similarities in content to formulate nine sub-fractions. Among these nine sub-fractions, sub-fraction number two was selected for compound isolation due to its higher content and better separation observed on a thin-layer chromatography (TLC) plate. Following isolation, the anti-cancer activity of compound N-A was assessed using the Hoechst 33342/propidium iodide assay on MCF-7 cell lines at different concentrations that ranged from 15.63 to 250 μg/mL. After in vitro bio-assay screening, compound N-A did not exhibit a reduction of cell population by 50%. The inactivity of compound N-A was, however, unexpected, as the crude extract of this plant has previously been shown to possess an anti-cancer effect on the MCF-7 cell line. It is possible that this molecule is more effective in the presence of other compounds found in A. laricinus Burch. extract due to synergism. The findings of this study suggest that compound N-A isolated from A. laricinus Burch. may not function as an anti-cancer agent; rather, the crude extract should be considered in future studies.
Access status: Open Access ,
Searsia rhemanniana as a potential anticancer agent: Unveiling mechanisms and therapeutic potential
(Central university of technology, 2026) Rampana, Dijeng Euginiah
The increasing global burden of chronic diseases such as cancer and the rise of antimicrobial resistance have intensified the search for novel pharmacologically active compounds from natural sources. This study evaluated the biological activities of crude extracts derived from Searsia rhemanniana, focusing on their cytotoxic, anticancer, genotoxic, and antibacterial properties. Extracts from bark, leaves, and roots were prepared using solvents of varying polarity (dichloromethane, methanol, and water) and tested using in vitro models, including DU145 human prostate cancer cells, HeLa cervical cancer cells, and Vero non-cancerous mammalian cells. Cytotoxicity assays revealed that dichloromethane extracts, particularly those derived from bark and root tissues, exhibited the most potent antiproliferative activity. Similarly, DCM bark and root extracts displayed strong activity against HeLa cells, with IC values ranging from approximately 22. The results show that aqueous bark extract, DCM bark extract, and methanolic leaf extract induce significant increases in micronucleus formation, indicating potential genotoxic effects under in vitro conditions. Methanolic extracts demonstrate the strongest antibacterial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus aureus, with IC values ranging from approximately 60–125 g/mL, while Escherichia coli exhibit higher resistance across extracts. Overall, the findings demonstrate that S.rhemanniana possesses diverse bioactive compounds capable of exerting cytotoxic, anticancer, genotoxic, and antibacterial effects in vitro. The strong antiproliferative activity of DCM bark and root extracts highlights the potential of this species as a source of novel plant-derived anticancer agents. However, the detection of genotoxic responses in certain extracts underscores the need for further phytochemical characterization, mechanistic studies, and in vivo safety evaluations.
Access status: Open Access ,
Investigation of a microbial consortium able to degrade selected emerging pollutants with endocrine-disrupting capabilities from wastewater in Bloemfontein
(Central University of technology, 2025) Qhanya, Lehlohonolo Benedict
Emerging pollutants (EPs) have become a growing environmental concern due to their persistence, ubiquity, and potential to cause adverse ecological and human health effects. Among these, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are of particular interest because of their ability to interfere with hormonal systems. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as atrazine (ATZ), bisphenol A (BPA), 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), and triclosan (TCS) are known to be persistent in the environment and their presence is of global concern. These compounds are often detected in the final effluent of wastewater, indicating the incomplete removal of EDCs. Some wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) utilise wastewater stabilisation ponds (WSPs) that use physical and biological processes to remove EPs. This research aimed to address the identified knowledge gap by investigating the occurrence and persistence of selected EDCs in a wastewater stabilisation system, particularly in two maturation ponds, in Bloemfontein, South Africa, and to determine their biodegradation by the indigenous microorganism consortium. The concentrations of ATZ, BPA, EE2 and TCS in the inflow and outflow of two wastewater maturation ponds (the inflow and the outflow ponds) were quantified by LC-MS/MS. Microbial composition was characterised using next generation sequencing (NGS). The inhibitory effects of these EDCs on microbial community were also investigated by determining the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC). Laboratory enrichment experiments were conducted in mineral salts medium (MSM) inoculated with pond water, with each EDC supplemented at 10 mg/L, incubated at 26°C, and shaken for 35 days. Degradation was monitored over 35 days by LC-MS/MS using peak area (AUC) as a proxy for relative concentration, and microbial growth was tracked through optical density (OD) and colony-forming units (CFU). All four target EDCs were detected in the maturation ponds at variable concentrations. The concentrations of EE2 in the inflow pond ranged from 0.0057 μg/mL to 125.0 μg/mL. Physicochemical variables revealed that pH and TDS influenced the microbial communities in these ponds. Microbial diversity investigated by 16S rRNA sequencing showed the presence of Proteobacteria, the most predominant phylum across the inflow and outflow samples. At the genus level, Flavobacterium and Microcystis were predominant, followed by Dechloromonas and Pseudomonas across the inflow and outflow pond samples. ITS analysis revealed unidentified phyla that accounted for 68.85% of all ASVs, followed by Ascomycota that occurred across the inflow and outflow samples. The inhibitory effects of EDCs on the microbial growth in the wastewater maturation ponds under study were evident. MIC assay results indicated that microbial growth was largely unaffected at lower concentrations (0.1 - 1 μg/mL), with inhibition becoming evident at higher doses (10 - 100 μg/mL). ATZ showed the lowest toxicity, sustaining microbial growth even at 100 μg/mL. BPA exhibited moderate inhibition, with growth declining significantly at 100 μg/mL. EE2 induced marked inhibition between 10 - 100 μg/mL, while TCS demonstrated the highest toxicity, suppressing microbial growth even at concentrations as low as 1 - 10 μg/mL. Maximum optical density (OD600nm) and colony forming units (CFU/mL) of LogOD600nm 0.387, and 1.23 x 107 CFU/mL were observed by Day 35. Microbial growth data confirmed active proliferation, suggesting a potential biological contribution to the reduction in the concentrations of EDCs. Study showed 90% signal reduction within 14 days for EE2 and BPA, while TCS showed only limited removal (66%) relative to controls. A spike in TCS control flasks on Day 35 and an increase in the experimental flasks suggested analytical challenges. A possible interference in MSM matrix with ionisation and recovery of TCS was possible. This study demonstrated that the maturation ponds in the wastewater stabilisation system acted as reservoirs for diverse EDCs and harboured microbial communities with biodegradative potential. The integration of field monitoring, microbial characterisation, and laboratory biodegradation assays highlighted both the promise and challenges of EDC bioremediation. While BPA and EE2 were readily degraded, ATZ remained recalcitrant, and TCS posed both analytical and biological barriers to removal. These findings underscore the importance of coupling environmental assessments with laboratory experiments to fully understand EDC. Future work should refine detection methods and media component interference for triclosan detection, investigate metabolic pathways, and explore the role of microbial consortia in enhancing pollutant removal.
Access status: Open Access ,
Food safety knowledge, practices, and microbial hand hygiene of food handlers in public primary schools in Gaborone Botswana
(Central University of technology, 2025) Masole, Onalethata
Background Foodborne illnesses remain a persistent challenge in Botswana, and schools are particularly vulnerable because many children rely on on-site meals. Despite national food-safety standards, outbreaks linked to poor hygiene and inadequate food-handling practices continue to be reported in school environments. International studies show that food handlers often act as sources of contamination due to insufficient knowledge and poor personal hygiene. Given the scale of Botswana’s school feeding program and the vulnerability of young children to foodborne diseases, there is a critical need to assess whether food safety knowledge and reported practices among school food handlers align with actual behavior and microbial hygiene outcomes. This gap underscores the importance of evaluating both behavioural and microbial indicators to strengthen food safety within school kitchens. Methods: A mixed-methods design was employed involving questionnaires, direct observations, and laboratory analysis of hand swab samples. Seventy-seven food handlers from ten randomly selected schools participated. Quantitative data were analysed using EPI Info 7 and Stata 14, while qualitative observations were thematically analysed. Hand swab samples were cultured on selective chromogenic media, enabling simultaneous detection and differentiation of Escherichia coli and total coliforms. Contamination was categorised as none, low (1–49 CFU), moderate (50–99 CFU), or high (≥100 CFU). Comparative and regression analyses were conducted to explore associations between demographic factors, knowledge, practices, and microbial outcomes. Results: Participants demonstrated high self-reported practice scores (89.37%), moderate knowledge levels (79.7%), and lower observed practice performance (75.75%). Despite strong awareness in areas such as hand hygiene, knowledge gaps persisted, particularly in temperature control: 37.66% of food handlers had misconception that freezing food eliminates or destroy bacteria completely, and only 35.06% recognised the existence of heat-resistant toxins. Only 55.8% had received formal food safety training, and none had undergone HACCP training. Mask usage during food preparation was low (22.08%), and 12.99% indicated willingness to work while ill. Demographic factors, including age, gender, education, employment status, and work experience, were not significantly associated with food safety knowledge (p > 0.05). However, hygiene practice scores were significantly higher among older handlers, those with longer work experience, permanent employees, and individuals with prior food safety training (p < 0.05). Knowledge significantly predicted practice (F(1,75) = 5.29, p = 0.024; R² = 0.066), though the effect was weak. Microbial assessments revealed that E. coli was absent in all 77 samples, while total coliform bacteria were detected in 32.47%. Contamination varied across schools, with School 2 displaying the highest prevalence. Knowledge and practice scores did not significantly predict microbial contamination. However, handwashing technique was strongly associated with contamination levels (χ² (4)=13.53, p=0.009), indicating that specific behavioural competencies rather than general knowledge are most influential in determining microbial outcomes. Conclusion: Although food handlers demonstrated moderate to high knowledge and self-reported practices, substantial behavioural gaps persisted, particularly in temperature control, mask use, and handwashing technique. Demographic characteristics were not reliable predictors of knowledge, though practical experience, employment stability, and training significantly influenced hygiene practices. The absence of E. coli indicates acceptable baseline hygiene, yet the presence of coliforms in one-third of handlers highlights continued risks. These findings emphasise that knowledge alone does not ensure food safety compliance; rather, hands-on training, continuous supervision, improved hygiene infrastructure, and institutional support are essential for strengthening food safety culture in school kitchens and protecting the health of children.
Access status: Open Access ,
Design of a digital mobile radio network for a rail-bound mission-critical wireless network
(Central university of technology, 2025) Nyawose, Nkosinathi Nhlanhla
The migration from analogue to digital communication systems has become a strategic imperative for industries that depend on mission-critical communication (MCC), such as the railway sector. This study investigates the feasibility and implementation of a Digital Mobile Radio (DMR) network as a replacement for the legacy Private Mobile Radio (PMR) analogue infrastructure used in railway MCC. The research evaluates various digital technologies—Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA), Long Term Evolution (LTE) and Digital Mobile Radio (DMR)—through comparative analysis, technical specifications and practical deployment considerations. DMR is identified as the most suitable technology due to its spectrum efficiency, superior voice quality, low power consumption and cost-effectiveness. A pilot DMR site was designed and configured using Wireless Radio Planning (WRAP) simulation software, incorporating link budget calculations, antenna configurations and terrain-based propagation modelling. The pilot site was implemented to validate the simulation outcomes, using a Tait TB9300 repeater, Webb CR400 antenna and Hytera PD785 handheld radio. Measurements focused on key performance indicators, including Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) values ranging from −72 dBm to −119 dBm; harmonic distortion, with second and third harmonic suppression of 56.87 dB and 59.30 dB respectively; and system power efficiency, achieving a 57% reduction in current consumption compared to analogue mode. The results demonstrated close correlation between predicted and actual performance, with a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 2.53%. The DMR system met regulatory requirements, including harmonic suppression thresholds set by the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA) and the International Telecommunication Union Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R), thereby affirming its technical compliance and operational robustness. This research presents a validated implementation model for adopting DMR in railway communication systems, supporting reliable, scalable and secure voice communication infrastructure for Transnet and other mission-critical applications.
Access status: Open Access ,
The impact of municipal waste disposal facilities on water resources: a case study of the upper Vaal water management area in South Africa
(Central University of technology, 2025) Noe, Herbert Malise
Environmental degradation caused by waste mismanagement is a global problem. For example, open dumping and burning in low-income countries are the primary waste treatment and disposal methods. This chapter compares the waste management policies and technologies used in South Africa with those of developed countries. In addition, the relationship between municipal and integrated solid waste management is explored and the two types are compared. The commitment of the municipality, residents (i.e., the community), businesses, shop-owners, industrial manufacturers, and other waste producers are crucial to achieve a sustainable waste management system starting and ending at disposal. South African municipalities are legally responsible for the removal of waste, but community involvement in waste management has become increasingly relevant, if not critical, if cities and towns in South Africa are to be kept clean and hygienic. This search used three databases to find studies that met the eligibility criteria so that the findings would answer the research questions and achieve some of the objectives.