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Access status: Open Access ,
Environmental and public health impacts of waste in the Free state province
(Central University of technology, 2025) Motaung, Mamello Agnes
Developing countries, including South Africa, continue to face significant challenges in achieving effective and sustainable waste management, despite progressive legislation. Weak institutional capacity, poor enforcement, inadequate infrastructure, and rapid urbanisation contribute to the growing burden of unmanaged waste. In South Africa, these challenges are especially evident in the Free State province, where municipalities struggle to comply with national waste management standards. This study assessed the environmental and public-health impacts of waste exposure among residents living near landfill sites in the province and explored ways to minimise these impacts through a One Health approach, which recognises the interconnection between environmental integrity, human well-being, and animal health. The research adopted a quantitative, non-experimental, cross-sectional design. Primary data were collected from residents, municipal officials, and waste pickers living near selected landfill sites using structured questionnaires, observational checklists, and field mapping supported by Global Positioning System (GPS) devices. Study sites were purposively selected based on prior evidence of operational deficiencies and exposure risks. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics to determine associations between environmental exposure and reported health outcomes, as well as to capture residents’ perceptions, lived experiences, and coping mechanisms. The findings revealed that most landfill sites in the Free State operate below the minimum standards prescribed by the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE). Waste loads were largely uninspected and mixed, leading to the indiscriminate disposal of hazardous and general materials such as healthcare waste, e-waste, absorbent hygiene products, and food waste. Open burning, leachate seepage, and vector proliferation were common across sites. Due to inadequate fencing and limited monitoring, school-age children and domestic animals were frequently observed scavenging at landfills for food or reusable items. The study further highlights operational inconsistencies in landfill classification, as several sites continue to accept mixed waste streams, despite the provisions of the Gauteng Pollution Buffer Zones Guidelines. Residential dwellings were found on seven landfill sites (38.9%), and three sites (16.7%) were located within 2 km of water bodies, the closest being approximately 140 m away, posing a substantial risk of water contamination. Sociodemographic analysis showed that most respondents were low-income earners with an average household income of R1 877,85. The majority were unemployed (57.9%), while 32.2% were employed in low-paying jobs, and 19.8% were waste pickers. A significant proportion (62%) engaged at least occasionally in waste picking, while 9.9% relied on social grants or pensions. Most respondents lived in substandard housing, such as shacks (38.8%), Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) houses (29.8%), or backyard dwellings (19%), with limited access to clean water, sanitation and healthcare. The association between limited municipal water access and reliance on wood as a primary energy source was statistically significant (p = 0.026 < 0.05), reflecting poverty-driven adaptive choices. Waste pickers and informal recyclers face heightened occupational hazards due to inadequate personal protective equipment (PPE) and the absence of occupational health monitoring. The ecological dimension of exposure was also evident: reports of sick or dead livestock and increased rodent and mosquito infestations indicated that waste mismanagement extends beyond human health, threatening both animal health and environmental stability. While 62.8% of respondents had never been hospitalised, 21.5% reported admissions due to illnesses related to poor air quality, pathogen exposure and environmental stressors, primarily respiratory ulcers, bronchitis, diarrhoeal infections and tuberculosis. The association between healthcare visits and disease prevalence (p = 0.004 < 0.05) reinforces the environmental health burden faced by communities near landfill sites. Using the One Health framework, the study demonstrated the interconnectedness of environmental degradation, human ill-health, and animal exposure, all driven by weak waste governance systems. The absence of multi-sectoral monitoring perpetuates cycles of vulnerability and exposure. To address this gap, the study proposed a Digitised Community Awareness and Self-Monitoring Tool (DCASMT), an innovative participatory mechanism for real-time environmental and health monitoring, local reporting, and interdepartmental coordination. This model seeks to enhance accountability, data-driven decision-making, and proactive health responses. The study concludes that waste management in the Free State is both an environmental and public health crisis with deep social-justice implications. The ongoing exposure of vulnerable populations to waste-related hazards constitutes a violation of the constitutional right to a safe and healthy environment. To mitigate these risks, the study recommends: • Revising landfill classifications and strengthening compliance monitoring systems; • Enforcing segregation, treatment, and safe disposal of hazardous waste; • Integrating environmental health surveillance into municipal waste management plans; • Institutionalising the DCASMT as part of a broader One Health implementation strategy; and • Promoting waste diversion in alignment with the waste management hierarchy and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By linking environmental quality, public health, and community participation, the study underscores the necessity of multi-level policy coordination and the ethical imperative of protecting both human and ecological health in developing country contexts.
Access status: Open Access ,
The effect of asparagus laricinus fractions on major drug metabolising enzymes – cyp3a4 and 2d6
(Central University of technology, 2025) Morake, Kelebogile Kefilwe
Asparagus laricinus Burch. is a shrub widely used in traditional South African medicine and is known to contain diverse phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, alkaloids and terpenoids that may interact with drug-metabolising enzymes. Because nearly 50% and 25% of drugs used in clinical practice are metabolised by CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 respectively – with CYP3A4 being the predominant hepatic form and CYP2D6 showing genetic polymorphism – herbal constituents that inhibit these enzymes may cause clinically significant herb-drug interactions by altering the plasma concentration of concomitant medications. Although the pharmacological activity of A. laricinus has been documented, its possible effect on CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 activity had not previously been studied. The aim of this study was to analyse the phytochemical composition of Asparagus laricinus leaves, evaluate their effects on the major drug-metabolising enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2D6, and to investigate the kinetic profile of these enzymes in the presence of the plant fractions. The crude methanolic leaf extract was fractionated into seven parts (A–I), and qualitative phytochemical screening was performed on each. Phenolic glycosides, flavonoid conjugation and steroidal saponins were identified as possible contributors, tentatively confirmed by LC-MS. Using in-vitro fluorescent-based high-throughput assays, a very strong dose-dependent inhibition of the enzymes was observed. Fraction H showed the highest dual activity (CYP3A4 IC₅₀ = 0.0026 μM; CYP2D6 IC₅₀ = 1.5 μM) in a mixed/non-competitive interaction, while fractions C and E were selective inhibitors of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4, respectively. The kinetic profiling supported the presence of potent inhibitory compounds within these fractions. Using in vitro, fluorescent-based, high-throughput assays, a very strong dose-dependent inhibition of the enzymes was observed. Fraction H showed the highest dual %inhibition effect (CYP3A4 % inhibition = 95,84%; CYP2D6 % inhibition = 91.26%) in a mixed/non-competitive interaction, while Fractions C and E were selective inhibitors of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4, respectively. The kinetic profiling supported the presence of potent inhibitory compounds within these fractions. Overall, the findings indicate that some A. laricinus fractions contain strong CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 inhibitors, suggesting a potential risk of herb-drug interactions when the plant is used concurrently with medications metabolised by these enzymes. This highlights the importance of pharmacovigilance, particularly in cancer patients who use A. laricinus preparations alongside traditional medicines.
Access status: Open Access ,
Development of a small- to medium-sized resorbable, bone-regenerating scaffold using additive manufacturing
(Central University of technology, 2026) Moletsane, Morakane Gloria
Lithography-based ceramic is a recent additive manufacturing technology for scaffolds with complex geometry and internal structure. This technology opens the possibility of manufacturing custom-made biodegradable bone regeneration scaffolds. All the specimens used in this investigation were made of hydroxyapatite LithaBone HA480 from Lithoz GmbH. This material is an improvement from the previous material HA400 from Lithoz. The manufacturing of HA480 specimens was done on a CeraFab S65 machine with a layer thickness of 25 μm at Lithoz in Vienna, Austria. The other specimens and implant demonstrator were manufactured at the Centre for Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing (CRPM), South Africa, using the same material and process parameters. The aim of the study was to create a customisable, resorbable three-dimensional porous bone scaffold with controllable degradation and bone regeneration rates by additive manufacturing. Selection of a suitable lattice structure for the study was done through comparing Maxwell’s criteria, porosity and mechanical properties between diamond, rhombic and diagonal lattice structures. The diamond lattice structure was selected because of its Maxwell number indicating a stretch-dominated structure, interconnected pores, and good mechanical properties. The calcium to phosphorus ratio of the HA480 was found to be 1.64±0.21 which was comparable to that of standard hydroxyapatite. Microhardness testing was performed on the solid HA480. Solid HA480 exhibited similar micro-hardness on surfaces parallel (556±25 HV) and perpendicular (559±27 HV) to the build direction. To determine the degradation ability of the material, HA480 diamond lattice structure specimens were immersed in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 1, 7, and 28 days. Biodegradation weight loss results indicated that after 28 days the scaffold degraded by 8.11%. Further investigation regarding biodegradation was done by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) which revealed evidence of material loss for Day 7 with decreased size of the struts. Surface analysis in the SEM on specimens at Day 28 revealed bone-like apatite, which confirmed that HA480 possessed enhanced bioactivity. Compression tests were performed according to the standard ISO 13175-3:2012. A set of ten HA480 diamond lattice structure specimens were compressed until failure to determine the compressive strength for dry, as well as hydrated specimens immersed in SBF for 1 and 28 days. The dry condition compressive strength was 10.7 MPa, while for the hydrated specimens, the compressive strength was 7.59 MPa after 1 day and 3.04 MPa after 28 days. The modulus of elasticity for HA480 was 0.5±0.4 GPa for the dry specimens which was higher than for cancellous bone. For the hydrated specimens after 1 day and 28 days of biodegradation the modulus of elasticity was 0.4±0.1 GPa and 0.6±0.02 GPa, respectively. Specimens of HA480 were sintered and after 28 days were analysed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results were comparable to those of standard hydroxyapatite. The surface roughness of HA480 was measured as Ra = 0.60±0.05 μm which was appropriate for cell attachment. Solid HA480 specimens were seeded with human osteoblast cell line hFOB 1.19 for determining the material’s biocompatibility and cell attachment properties. The fluorescence level results were lower on Day 1, but cell proliferation increased on Day 3, while fluorescence decreased on Days 5 and 7. Optimal cell attachment was observed from Day 1 to Day 7. An implant demonstrator with a diamond lattice structure was designed and printed in HA480 material. The accuracy of the LCM and the biomedical and mechanical properties of the implant demonstrated that the LCM technology can be used to manufacture custom-designed scaffolds for bone regeneration.
Access status: Open Access ,
Assessing health and safety conditions in the buildings at an institution of higher learning in South Africa: a case in the Free State province
(Central University of Technology, 2026) Mokgobo, Mojabeng Vinolia
Higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa are mandated to provide safe, hazard-free learning and working environments. Yet, evidence increasingly suggests a gap between legislative requirements and actual safety conditions within campus buildings. This master's study investigated this problem by assessing the health and safety compliance of buildings at a selected institution in the Free State province, identifying prevalent hazards, and determining the factors influencing compliance. The study aimed to evaluate the current state of health and safety conditions, guided by five objectives: identifying compliance-enhancing components, examining occupational hazards, determining factors associated with compliance and non-compliance, assessing compliance levels, and evaluating the effectiveness of existing control measures. An exploratory sequential mixed-method design was employed, incorporating surveys with 372 students and 235 staff, interviews with health and safety professionals, and Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) audit checklists across eight buildings. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, regression modelling, and thematic analysis. Findings revealed partial compliance, with buildings scoring between 45% and 67% on checklist assessments. Major deficiencies included expired fire extinguishers, blocked exits, poor ventilation and lighting, weak waste management, and inadequate signage. Students showed low safety awareness: only 22% were trained, and 40.1% had never received safety communication. Staff demonstrated moderate awareness (mean ≈ 3.1/5), yet only 14.5% were fully compliant. Regression analysis showed that institutional support was the strongest predictor of compliance. Interviews highlighted deteriorating infrastructure, weak leadership commitment, fragmented communication, and reactive rather than preventive safety practices. The study concludes that although policies align with national legislation and ISO 45001 principles, implementation remains inconsistent owing to systemic deficiencies in leadership, infrastructure, communication, and resource allocation. Strengthening management accountability, institutionalizing continuous training, improving hazard communication, and adopting a proactive risk-based maintenance system are recommended to achieve sustainable compliance and safer campus environments.
Access status: Open Access ,
Perceptions and investigation of poor quality water supplied to the resident of the city of Bloemfontein
(Central University of Technology, 2025) Moja, Palesa
The Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality (MMM) still experiences challenges in addressing water shortages, a problem that has affected socioeconomic development, the agriculture sector, and the municipal population. The systematic water interruptions to the city have fuelled the perception of the residents regarding poor water quality supplied to the city. The purpose of the study was to examine the existing water infrastructure and quality supplied by the Vaal Central Water and the Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality to residents of Bloemfontein, and to assess community perceptions of the supplied water quality. The study used a mixed-methods approach with two stages. The first stage included a quantitative approach with the use of a questionnaire (n=115) to collect data on the community perception of supplied water quality. Graphical representation and data analysis were conducted using Microsoft Excel. The second stage involved the collection of water samples from two sources (Vaal Central Water and MMM water works) for water quality laboratory testing. A spectrophotometer, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, as well as a heterotrophic plate count and the IDEXX Colilert, were used to analyze the microbial and physicochemical parameters. The study shows a correlation between the colour of water samples and respondents’ perceptions of colour and turbidity. Results indicate elevated levels of zinc, colour, and microbial contaminants exceeding SANS 241 standards, correlating with negative public perceptions of organoleptic properties; the majority of residents do not trust the quality of the tap water, and 79.1% of respondents believed authorities did not adequately communicate concerning water quality issues. The study concludes that respondents hold a negative impression of their water, which was driven by a lack of trust in the Municipality and negative organoleptic properties; although Bloemfontein’s municipal water infrastructure largely delivers water that complies with SANS standards, shortcomings in maintenance, efficiency, and public awareness drive community dissatisfaction and water insecurity, emphasizing the importance of better communication and enhanced water quality management.
Access status: Open Access ,
Municipal solid waste management in the Mangaung metropolitan municipality, Free State Province
(Central University of Technology, 2025) Mohatlane, Tshitso Ivan
This study investigated the challenges that persistently plague municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in the Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality, Free State Province, South Africa. The study primarily focused on the inefficient and inconsistent collection of refuse, resulting in widespread illegal dumping and, therefore, the city of Bloemfontein being branded as the “City buried in waste”. The investigation aimed to identify key obstacles to proper waste management and to propose actionable solutions to improve waste management practices. Data were collected using structured questionnaires targeting 139 residents and 70 municipal employees across seven towns in the Mangaung area. These data were supplemented by completing observation checklists at various residential sampling points and landfill sites. The researcher ensured cultural sensitivity and inclusivity during the data collection processes. The findings revealed significant inefficiencies in waste management practices, including inconsistent collection services, insufficient employee training, and limited recycling initiatives. The residents expressed their frustration with inadequate municipal services, while the observations highlighted poorly managed landfill sites and the prevalence of illegal dumping. Despite moderate awareness of recycling practices, significant knowledge gaps existed among residents and employees regarding the implementation of solid waste legislation. The data further revealed disparities in demographic and educational profiles, with younger residents dominating the sample, while the employees were of more mature ages but undertrained. The study urges the Mangaung Municipality to adopt a comprehensive, sustainable waste management strategy. Key recommendations include investing in modern waste collection infrastructure, strengthening recycling programs, implementing waste-to-energy initiatives, and enhancing policy enforcement. Collaboration with the private sector and community engagement are also vital to foster a circular economy and to address systemic issues. Long-term planning and the integration of smart waste management technologies will ensure that the municipality will meet the needs of its growing population while minimizing adverse environmental impacts.
Access status: Open Access ,
Microbiota and associated chemical compounds in South African craft ales
(Central University of technology, 2025) Mogotsi, Lerato Bonolo
Craft beer is typically brewed in smaller batches compared to industrial breweries. Several factors can influence the flavour, quality, and safety throughout the craft beer brewing process, including raw materials, fermentation conditions, and the interactions between the chemical composition and microbial communities. Limited research has been undertaken on the integration of microbial and chemical profiles of craft beers. Therefore, this study aimed to profile the microbial and chemical compositions of South African craft ale beers, to evaluate their safety in relation to the detected microbial and chemical compositions, including the level of mycotoxins, and to explore correlations between the microbiota and the detected compounds. A total of 30 beers (in triplicate) of different styles were purchased from 30 commercial craft breweries and tested for mycotoxin levels using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionisation–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The most prevalent mycotoxin was deoxynivalenol (DON), which was detected in 10% of the beer samples. The highest concentration of DON (22 μg/L and 41.49 μg/L) was detected in India Pale Ale (IPA) and Stout, while fumonisin FB₁ and FB₂ (0.37 μg/L and 0.16 μg/L) were detected in IPA and Pale Ale, respectively. Nivalenol (NIV) was present in trace amounts (0.13 μg/L) in one IPA sample. The presence of these mycotoxins indicated the need for quality assurance of raw materials used in craft beer production and quality control. Microbial profiling showed total viable microorganisms present up to 1.63 × 10⁵ CFU/mL, yeast was detected in more than 50% of the beer samples, not unexpected since most breweries do not filter or pasteurise their final product. Moulds were present in product from 17% of breweries, and 60% of the breweries presented with lactic acid bacterial (LAB) contamination. Common foodborne pathogens Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp were not detected. Pale Ales from one brewery presented co-occurrence of LAB and Staphylococcus aureus, indicative of post-fermentation contamination. Next-generation sequencing results showed that Acetobacter and Levilactobacillus spp. dominated bacterial communities, while the fungal community was dominated by Saccharomyces cerevisiae, although other non-Saccharomyces genera, including Cladosporium, Vishniacozyma, and Penicillium spp. were also present. Chemical profiling revealed several flavour-active compounds, including isoamyl alcohol (178.9 mg/L), 4-vinylguaiacol (10 mg/L), isoamyl acetate, and vanillic acid (76.7 mg/L), present in concentrations well above sensory thresholds in beer styles in which these compounds are not expected or preferred. The sugar and sugar alcohols varied widely in both type and concentrations. Fructose (107.4 mg/L), xylose (60.6 mg/L), and xylitol (185.4 mg/L) were among the most dominant. A strong positive correlation between higher alcohols, as well as a negative correlation between certain sugars (e.g., maltose, trehalose) and flavour-active compounds was also revealed. This research provides insights into the microbial and chemical profiles of sampled South African craft ales. While these beers may be microbiologically safe and favourably complex, some of the beer samples remain susceptible to post-fermentation contamination and subtle chemical variability. The findings highlight the interconnected role of microorganisms in shaping beer flavour and stability, and they emphasise the importance of maintaining consistent quality in the craft brewery environment. This study establishes valuable baseline data to enhance product safety, sensory consistency, and meet regulatory standards of the rapidly growing craft beer industry.
Access status: Open Access ,
Efficacy of Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis associated with knee implants
(Central University of technology, 2025) Mbanjwa, Ntombokhanyo
Knee replacement surgery is experiencing a surge in demand worldwide; however, knee infections represent a substantial public health threat, particularly for underserved communities. While knee implantology was innovated to restore functionality to damaged knees, the risk of infections due to bacterial colonisation around the implant remains a serious concern. The overuse of antibiotics not only jeopardises patient health but also escalates healthcare costs. Although prophylactic antibiotic regimens are employed to mitigate infection risks, the emergence of antibiotic resistance due to excessive utilisation has complicated this approach. In this context, essential oils emerge as a promising solution to combat these challenges. Essential oils, known for their natural origins, serve as potent antibacterial agents due to their mechanisms of action, which include disrupting cell walls, damaging cytoplasmic membranes, and causing cytoplasmic coagulation. This study specifically investigates the Essential oils' effectiveness in combatting bacteria associated with knee implants. The research examines the bactericidal properties of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree essential oil) and Pelargonium graveolens (geranium essential oil) essential oils against the antibiotic-resistant strains Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus. The findings suggest that both Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens essential oils effectively inhibit bacterial growth linked to knee implants, thereby potentially reducing the necessity for knee implant revisions. The essential oils' chemical constituents were examined utilising gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC-MS).Terpinen-4-ol was discovered to be a key component of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil, including α-pinene, γ-terpinene, limonene, and cymene, which are associated with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Pelargonium graveolens essential oil consists of citronellol and geraniol as major components that contribute to cell wall disruption, loss of cellular contents, and overall bacterial deformation. The research employed bioassay methods to evaluate the antibacterial effects of Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens essential oils against S. aureus (ATCC 25923) and S. epidermidis (ATCC 12228). Both Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens essential oils demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on the growth of S. aureus and S.epidermidis. To ascertain the concentration at which these essential oils can inhibit microbial growth, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) method was utilised. Additionally, the study sought to examine the structural transformations induced by essential oils in microorganisms, employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques. The SEM results revealed observable morphological changes, including slight roughness (R) of the cell surfaces, loss cellular content (LCC), and damage to the cell walls (DCW). The TEM results revealed drastic alterations in the cellular structure of S. aureus and S. epidermidis following exposure to Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens essential oils. Notable changes included damaged cell walls, the formation of holes, and the depletion of cellular contents, ultimately resulting in cell death. This research holds significant implications for the use of natural products like essential oils as potential alternative bacteriostatic agents. During microbial assessments, it was observed that Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens essential oils compromised the cell membranes of S. aureus and S. epidermidis, leading to cell death. Consequently, this indicates that both essential oils can effectively target multiple bacterial sites, particularly the plasma membrane and cytoplasm. Moreover, the study highlights some advantages of using natural products such as Melaleuca alternifolia and Pelargonium graveolens essential oils, including the need for the healthcare sector to reduce reliance on antibiotics and consider essential oils as viable alternatives in the fight against microorganisms responsible for knee infections, ultimately decreasing the need for revision surgeries. However, despite the promising nature of essential oils as alternatives to antibiotics, further research is imperative. The impact of essential oils on health and integrity of knee implants, the optimal concentrations that ensure bacterial eradication without harming human cells, and the duration of essential oil adherence to implants remain areas requiring additional exploration, as well as investigating the biofilm formation of bacterial strains on the experimental knee implant.
Access status: Open Access ,
Use of artificial intelligence for predictive maintenance of electric trains in South Africa
(Central University of Technology, 2026) Mavhungu, Sonia Mathalise
Railway transportation plays a critical role in urban mobility and economic development, serving as a primary mode of passenger movement for millions of commuters across South Africa. Despite its strategic importance, the South African rail sector continue to face persistent operational challenges as result of ageing infrastructure, progressive rolling stock degradation, and maintenance regimes that remain largely reactive or time-based. These conventional maintenance regime approaches are not favourable when considering the demands of modern rail operations, as they fail to anticipate subsystem failures before they escalate into costly service disruptions. The inability to detect early fault conditions in critical electrical and mechanical systems has contributed to increased unscheduled downtime, high maintenance costs, and compromised passenger safety, which are challenges that have been witnessed within many railway operational environments. To address these challenges, this study investigated the application of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning to develop and implement a predictive maintenance model for electric trains (ET), using a fleet of passenger rolling stock classified as electric multiple units (EMU), operated by the Passenger Rail Agency South Africa as a case study. Operational data was collected from the fleet operator, and a quantitative, simulation-based methodology was followed to evaluate a machine learning predictive maintenance model. The operational data covering a period of two (2) years (2023 – 2024) was collected across three critical subsystems, the pantograph, traction motor, and auxiliary converter unit, monitoring parameters including line voltage, current, temperature, airflow, vibration, and arc frequency. Two supervised machine learning algorithms, Logistic Regression and Random Forest, were trained and evaluated using this dataset. The Random Forest model achieved superior predictive performance, with 93% accuracy, 0.91 precision, 0.88 recall, and an F1-score of 0.89. These results verify the model’s ability to effectively distinguish between normal and early fault modes with high accuracy of detection, which is crucial for safety of railway applications. Furthermore, an analysis in this study revealed that trends in the frequency of high voltage arcs, line voltage deviation and temperature rise in traction motors were discovered to occur prior to recorded fault events. This demonstrated that features derived from these data can be investigated efficiently as an information rich multi-parametric supply for proactive predictive diagnostics. This study has also demonstrated that AI-based Predictive Maintenance can materially improve rail operational efficiency through condition-based intervention, reducing unscheduled downtime. The research adds to the new field of intelligent railway asset management by simulating the integration of AI in a South African passenger rail environment. It provides a methodological framework to shift maintenance from a reactive or time-based approach to a proactive and data centric strategy. Future work is suggested to further develop this work by deploying different methodologies with more sophisticated deep learning architectures for more objects at the same time.
Access status: Open Access ,
Albumin-coated cadmium oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and In Vitro and In Vivo evaluation of their biological activity in triple-negative breast cancer
(Central University of Technology, 2026-06) Lefojane, Relebohile Patricia
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive breast cancer subtype characterised by the absence of oestrogen, progesterone, and HER2 receptors, limiting the effectiveness of targeted therapies. Conventional chemotherapy remains non-selective and is associated with systemic toxicity and poor bioavailability. This study investigated the synthesis, characterisation, and anti-TNBC therapeutic potential of albumin-coated chemically synthesised cadmium oxide nanoparticles (A-Chem CdO NPs) as a potential nanotherapeutic strategy. Cadmium oxide nanoparticles were synthesised using green, chemical, and albumin-assisted chemical methods, and characterised using UV-Visible spectroscopy, FTIR, XPS, and TEM analyses. In vitro cytotoxicity was evaluated using the MTT assay, while in vivo therapeutic efficacy and systemic toxicity were assessed in a BALB/c mouse model using clinical observations, body mass changes, tumour inhibition rate (TIR), and histomorphological analysis. Chemically synthesised Cadmium Oxide Nanoparticles (Chem CdO NPs) demonstrated the highest in vitro potency and were subsequently functionalised with albumin to improve stability and biocompatibility. Albumin coating reduced the potency in MDA-MB-231 cells, whiththe IC50 increasing from 3.33 μg/mL to 11.32 μg/mL, whereas Doxorubicin (the standard drug) exhibited the greatest potency with an IC50 of 0.34 μg/mL and the highest selectivity index. In vivo, A-Chem CdO NPs induced delayed and milder clinical toxicity compared with Doxorubicin. Although body mass loss was comparable between treatments, Doxorubicin achieved superior tumour inhibition (50–55%), while A-Chem CdO NPs demonstrated moderate antitumour activity (30–35%). Histomorphological analysis revealed tumour necrosis and chromatin condensation in A-Chem CdO NP-treated tissues, indicating moderate tumour regression, with minimal evidence of off-target organ toxicity. Overall, the findings demonstrate that albumin functionalisation altered the biological behaviour of CdO nanoparticles, reducing acute cytotoxicity while maintaining moderate in vivo antitumour efficacy. These results highlight the complexity of nanoparticle therapeutic performance and support further optimisation of albumin-coated CdO nanoparticle systems for TNBC treatment.